An historical perspective of organic farming. A Comparative Analysis of Organic and Industrial Agriculture: Foundations, Principles, and Practices

Prof.Marcel Robischon with Dr Vikash Tatayah of the Mauritus Wildlife Foundation 

Introduction: Defining Two Agricultural Paradigms

Modern food production has been profoundly shaped by two distinct and often competing paradigms: industrial agriculture and organic agriculture. The industrial model, born from scientific and technological revolutions, has achieved unprecedented scale and output. In contrast, the organic model has emerged as a holistic counter-movement, championing ecological harmony and long-term sustainability. 

The central theme of his presentation is to contrast the industrial model's focus on high-input, standardized production with the organic model's guiding principles of ecological integration and local adaptation. While one seeks to maximize efficiency through technological control over nature, the other strives to work within natural systems, viewing the farm as a component of a larger, interconnected ecosystem. To fully appreciate their current methodologies, it is essential to first understand the core philosophy that animates the organic movement.

The Philosophy and Principles of Organic Agriculture

To understand organic agriculture is to look beyond a simple list of prohibited inputs and farming techniques. It is a holistic system rooted in a distinct philosophy of sustainability, ecological integration, and social responsibility. This section defines the movement by exploring its core principles, which emphasize a collaborative rather than a purely extractive relationship with the natural world.

According to leading organizations, organic farming is a production system guided by a clear set of tenets. Synthesizing definitions from the German Federal Agency for Agriculture and Food and the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), the core principles can be summarized as follows:

• Resource Efficiency and Sustainability: To practice a form of agriculture that is resource-efficient, environmentally sound, and fundamentally based on the principles of sustainability, aiming to farm in harmony with nature.
• Ecological Preservation: To actively protect and preserve ecosystems, biodiversity, soil health, and water quality, while minimizing the overall climate impact of agricultural activities.
• Local Adaptation: To rely on ecological processes, biodiversity, and natural cycles that are adapted to specific local conditions, integrating tradition with innovation.
• Socio-Economic Dimensions: To promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all individuals involved in the food system, a principle central to the broader agroecology movement.

It is critical to note, however, that while IFOAM’s definition includes social aims, organic farming as a production system can be separated from these goals. It is possible to have a perfectly organic product that ignores the broader social objectives of the agroecology movement. While related concepts such as biodynamic and regenerative farming exist, this report will focus on the term "organic farming" as the primary subject of comparison. These foundational principles stand in stark contrast to the framework that underpins the industrial model.

3.0 The Framework and Methodologies of Industrial Agriculture

Industrial agriculture emerged from the scientific and technological advancements of the modern era, fundamentally reshaping food production on a global scale. This approach prioritizes efficiency, output, and standardization to meet the demands of a growing world population. The defining characteristics of industrial agriculture are a direct reflection of its core philosophy of maximizing production through intensive methods. These methodologies include:

• Scale and Intensity: A focus on large-scale, intensive production, often described as factory farming.
• Technological Dependence: The extensive use of heavy machinery and a requirement for high levels of capital investment to support its operations.
• Chemical Inputs: A heavy and systematic reliance on externally produced inputs, including chemical mineral fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
• Specialization and Standardization: A preference for monocultures—growing a single crop like corn or sugar cane over vast areas—which contributes to a loss of diversity through processes of "biological globalization" and the "Columbian exchange." This results in highly standardized products that are uniform in appearance and taste.
• Economic Model: The operation is structured more as a high-tech business than a traditional farm, with producers often specializing in a single commodity.

This model, while highly productive, is associated with significant environmental consequences, including widespread soil erosion, a dramatic loss of biodiversity, the accumulation of toxins throughout the food chain, and significant alterations to the natural water balance. In fact, the destructive capacity of this model has led to the potent conclusion that "one may boldly say that industrial agriculture tends to actually destroy what is the basis of agriculture itself." 

The Scientific Revolution in Agriculture: The Rise of the Industrial Model

The industrial model was made possible by a series of key scientific innovations and the work of several architects who laid the foundation for modern agrochemistry. Their discoveries fundamentally changed the relationship between farming, chemistry, and large-scale production.

• Justus von Liebig: Considered a founder of agrochemistry, Liebig developed the theory of mineral nutrition for plants, arguing that growth is limited by the nutrient in shortest supply. This principle led to his development of superphosphate, a soluble phosphate fertilizer that became, and remains, the most widely used fertilizer in the world.
• Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch: These two figures developed the Haber-Bosch process for synthesizing ammonia directly from the air, a breakthrough that enabled the mass production of nitrogen fertilizers. This process is the basis for most chemical fertilizers available today. Critically, Fritz Haber is also noted as a controversial figure, known as the "father of gas warfare" for his work during World War I.
• Paul Hermann Müller: A Nobel laureate, Müller discovered the potent insecticide effects of Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). His discovery led to its rapid and widespread global adoption in the 1940s and 1950s. The subsequent environmental damage caused by DDT, particularly its impact on bird populations, was famously brought to public attention by Rachel Carson in her seminal 1962 book, Silent Spring.

Conclusion: Synthesizing Two Opposing Paradigms

Prof M. Robischon provided a historical and philosophical overview of organic agriculture, tracing its evolution from early "humus farming" concepts, which emphasize the soil food web and nutrient recycling, to a globally recognized and regulated commercial commodity. Key intellectual pioneers like Sir Albert Howard and J.I. Rodale are identified as foundational figures who reacted against the destructive practices of industrial, chemical-based agriculture and advocated for healthy soil leading to healthier food. The texts highlight the role of environmental crises and landmark publications, notably Rachel Carson's Silent Spring, in accelerating the environmental movement and increasing public demand for verified organic food, which led to standardization efforts like the National Organic Program (NOP) in the U.S. Furthermore, the documents examine related alternative systems like Integrated Production and discuss unique cases, such as Cuba's forced conversion to agroecological practices due to the collapse of its trade partners, illustrating the system's resilience when chemical inputs are unavailable.

He alslo highlighted numerous farming concepts related to organic agriculture. While these concepts are not always identical to organic farming, they share strong commonalities or represent specific varieties and versions of it. Related farming concepts mentioned in the sources include:

• Biodynamic farming: This is a distinct but related concept. The initial movement of biodynamic agriculture, started by Rudolf Steiner in 1924, had a zero scientific basis and relied on esoteric, anthroposophical concepts. However, it does share principles with organic farming, such as avoiding chemical pest control and mineral fertilizers. Early biodynamic practices included unusual and non-scientific concepts, such as using "horn manure" where horns are filled with dung, buried, and then diluted.
• Natural farming: This concept includes versions such as the Korean and Japanese natural farming styles. In Japan, the organic farming movement emerged, drawing inspiration from local philosophies, specifically Buddhism and Shinto principles.
• Regenerative farming: This is another term found among the related concepts.
• Agroecology: While distinct, agroecology is a closely related, overarching concept. It strives for transformation towards sustainable agriculture overall and is generally considered scientifically rooted. Organic farming is considered a more specific term within the broader context of agroecology. Agroecology is also described as a social movement.
• Bioland: This is a producer association that started in the 1950s. Bioland aims for similar outcomes as biodynamic farming, promoting circular economy and soil fertility, but it has a scientific basis. Bioland arose from observations that industrial agriculture was drastically changing home areas and farms